![]() Parasitologists study parasites wherever they occur and whether they are viruses, bacteria, worms or insects.Marine biologists study marine organisms, their behaviors and their interactions with the environment.Freshwater biologists (aka limnologists) examine the life and ecosystems of freshwater environments this includes lakes, rivers and ponds and covers microbial, plant and animal life.Ecologists study the interactions and relationships between organisms and their environment. ![]() Geodesists measure and monitor the Earth’s size and shape, geodynamic phenomena (e.g., tides and polar motion), and gravity field to determine the exact coordinates of any point on Earth and how that point will move over time.Environmental geologists help prevent contamination of soil and groundwater by determining geologically safe locations for new landfills, coal ash disposal sites, and nuclear power plants.Environmental soil scientists study the upper few meters of the Earth’s crust in terms of its physical and chemical properties distribution, genesis and morphology and biological components.Environmental chemists monitor what is in the air, water, and soil to study how chemicals enter the environment, what affects they have, and how human activity affects the environment.Paleoclimatologists study the Earth’s past climate.Forecasting meteorologists predict the weather approximately 7-10 days in advance and convey this information to the general public. Meteorologists study the movement and energy distributions of the atmosphere, particularly with respect to their effect on weather.Hydrometeorologists study the transfer of water and energy between the land surface and lower atmosphere with particular emphasis on natural hazards (such as floods, droughts, tropical cyclones and desertification) and mitigating their effects.Climate modelers use mathematical techniques to simulate the interaction of physical forces on climate and climate change.Climatologists study the earth’s climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time.Atmospheric physicists study the effect of terrestrial, atmospheric, and space-based forces on the behavior of the atmosphere.Atmospheric chemists investigate the chemical processes occurring in the atmosphere, such as the relationship between CFCs and ozone.Geography Unbound presents an insightful portrait of a crucial period in the development of modern geography, whose unstable disciplinary status is still very much an issue today. She tells her story partly through the lives and careers of individuals, from the deposed cabinet geographer Cassini IV to Volney, von Humboldt, and Letronne (innovators in human, physical, and historical geography), and partly through the institutions with which they were associated such as the Encyclop die and the Jesuit and military colleges. Anne Godlewska examines this crisis, the often conservative reactions of geographers to it, and the work of researchers at the margins of the field who helped chart its future course. Though they had previously been ranked among the most highly regarded scientists in Europe, they suddenly found themselves directionless and disrespected because they were unable to adapt their descriptive focus easily to the new emphasis on theory and explanation sweeping through other disciplines. At the end of the eighteenth century, French geographers faced a crisis.
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